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Biodynamic agriculture is a method of organic farming originally developed by Rudolf Steiner that employs what proponents describe as "a holistic understanding of agricultural processes".〔 One of the first sustainable agriculture movements,〔〔Lotter, D.W. 2003. "(Organic agriculture )" J. Sustainable Agriculture 21(4)〕〔Richard Harwood, former C.S. Mott Chair for Sustainable Agriculture at Michigan State University, calls the biodynamic movement the "first organized and well-defined movement of growers and philosophies (sustainable agriculture ) (Harwood 1990; p.6).〕 it treats soil fertility, plant growth, and livestock care as ecologically interrelated tasks,〔 emphasizing spiritual and mystical perspectives. Proponents of biodynamic agriculture, including Steiner, have characterized it as "spiritual science" as part of the larger anthroposophy movement.〔 Biodynamics has much in common with other organic approaches – it emphasizes the use of manures and composts and excludes the use of artificial chemicals on soil and plants. Methods unique to the biodynamic approach include its treatment of animals, crops, and soil as a single system; an emphasis from its beginnings on local production and distribution systems; its use of traditional and development of new local breeds and varieties; and the use of an astrological sowing and planting calendar.〔(2015 Biodynamic Lunar and Planetary Calendar ); Desmond Ansel Jolly, Isabella Kenfield, ''California's New Green Revolution: Pioneers in Sustainable Agriculture'', University of California Small Farm Program 2008, p. 114; Carl F. Jordan, ''An Ecosystem Approach to Sustainable Agriculture'', Springer 2013, p. 126; Arnaldo Walter and Pedro Gerber Machado, "Socio-Economic Impacts of Bioethanol from Sugarcane in Brazil", in ''Socio-Economic Impacts of Bioenergy Production '' Dominik Rutz, Rainer Janssen (eds.) , Springer 2014 ISBN 978-3-319-03828-5 pp. 193-215. p. 208; Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Committee on Twenty-First Century Systems Agriculture, Division on Earth and Life Studies, National Research Council, ''Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century'', National Academies Press 2010. ISBN 978-0-309-14896-2 p. 21〕 Biodynamic agriculture uses various herbal and mineral additives for compost additives and field sprays; these are sometimes prepared by controversial methods, such as burying ground quartz stuffed into the horn of a cow, which are said to harvest "cosmic forces in the soil", that are more akin to sympathetic magic than agronomy. As of 2011 biodynamic techniques were used on 142,482 hectares in 47 countries. Germany accounts for 45% of the global total;〔 the remainder average 1750 ha per country. Biodynamic methods of cultivating grapevines have been taken up by several notable vineyards. There are certification agencies for biodynamic products, most of which are members of the international biodynamics standards group Demeter International. No difference in beneficial outcomes has been scientifically established between certified biodynamic agricultural techniques and similar organic and integrated farming practices. Critics have characterized biodynamic agriculture as pseudoscience on the basis of a lack of strong evidence for its efficacy and skepticism about aspects criticized as being magical thinking. ==History== The development of biodynamic agriculture began in 1924 with a series of eight lectures on agriculture given by philosopher Rudolf Steiner at Schloss Koberwitz in Silesia, Germany, (now Kobierzyce in Poland southwest of Wrocław).〔Paull, John (2013) ("Koberwitz (Kobierzyce); In the footseps of Rudolf Steiner'" ), Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, 109 (Autumn), pp. 7-11.〕〔Paull, John (2013) ("Breslau (Wrocław): In the footsteps of Rudolf Steiner" ), Journal of Bio- Dynamics Tasmania, 110:10-15.〕 The lectures, the first known to have been given on organic agriculture,〔 were held in response to a request by farmers who noticed degraded soil conditions and a deterioration in the health and quality of crops and livestock resulting from the use of chemical fertilizers.〔Diver (1999), ("Introduction" ).〕 The one hundred eleven attendees, less than half of whom were farmers, came from six countries, primarily Germany and Poland.〔 The lectures were published in November 1924; the first English translation appeared in 1928 as ''The Agriculture Course''. Steiner emphasized that the methods he proposed should be tested experimentally. For this purpose, Steiner established a research group, the "Agricultural Experimental Circle of Anthroposophical Farmers and Gardeners of the General Anthroposophical Society".〔Paull, John (2013) (A history of the organic agriculture movement in Australia. ) In: Bruno Mascitelli, and Antonio Lobo (Eds.) Organics in the Global Food Chain. Connor Court Publishing, Ballarat, ch.3, pp.37-61.〕 This research group attracted, in the interval 1924 to 1939, about 800 members from around the world, including Europe, the Americas and Australasia.〔 Another group, the "Association for Research in Anthroposophical Agriculture" (Versuchsring anthroposophischer Landwirte), directed by the German agronomist Erhard Bartsch, was formed to test the effects of biodynamic methods on the life and health of soil, plants and animals; the group published a monthly journal ''Demeter''.〔 Bartsch was also instrumental in developing a sales organisation for biodynamic products, Demeter, which still exists today. The Research Association was renamed The Imperial Association for Biodynamic Agriculture (Reichsverband für biologisch-dynamische Wirtschaftsweise) in 1933. It was dissolved by the National Socialist regime in 1941. In 1931 the association had 250 members in Germany, 109 in Switzerland, 104 in other European countries and 24 outside Europe. The oldest biodynamic farms are the Wurzerhof in Austria and Marienhöhe in Germany.〔Herbert Koepf and Bodo von Plato "Die biologisch-dynamische Wirtschaftsweise im 20.Jahrhundert", Dornach, 2001〕 In 1938, Ehrenfried Pfeiffer's text ''Bio-Dynamic Farming and Gardening'' was published in five languages – English, Dutch, Italian, French, and German; this became the standard work in the field for several decades.〔 In July 1939, at the invitation of Walter James, 4th Baron Northbourne, Pfeiffer travelled to the UK and presented the 'Betteshanger Summer School and Conference on Biodynamic Farming' at Northbourne's farm in Kent.〔Paull, John (2011) ("The Betteshanger Summer School: Missing link between biodynamic agriculture and organic farming" ), Journal of Organic Systems, 6(2):13-26.〕 The conference has been described as the 'missing link' between biodynamic agriculture and organic farming because, in the year after Betteshanger, Northbourne published his manifesto of organic farming, ''Look to the Land'', in which he coined the term 'organic farming' and praised the methods of Rudolf Steiner.〔 In the 1950s, Hans Mueller was encouraged by Steiner's work to create the organic-biological farming method in Switzerland; this later developed to become the largest certifier of organic products in Europe, ''Bioland''.〔 Today biodynamics is practiced in more than 50 countries worldwide and in a variety of circumstances, ranging from temperate arable farming, viticulture in France, cotton production in Egypt, to silkworm breeding in China.〔Florian Leiber, Nikolai Fuchs and Hartmut Spieß, "Biodynamic agriculture today", in Paul Kristiansen, Acram Taji, and John Reganold (2006), ''Organic Agriculture: A global perspective'', Collingwood, AU: CSIRO Publishing〕 Germany accounts for nearly half of the world's biodynamic agriculture.〔Paull, John (2011) ("Organics Olympiad 2011: Global Indices of Leadership in Organic Agriculture" ), ''Journal of Social and Development Sciences'', 1(4):144-150.〕 Demeter International is the primary certification agency for farms and gardens using the methods. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「biodynamic agriculture」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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